Video on evidence for ancient American horses

Researching available solid evidence for horses in ancient America has been a pursuit of Daniel's for quite a while now. Not surprisingly, other interested parties with greater resources have been doing it as well. In addition to the information he has shared about the findings published in scientific journals, there have been solid findings coming from recent digs in San Luis Potosí, Mexico showing the survival of post-Pleistocene ancient horses. Published in the Texas Journal of Science, these finds can now be taken seriously. These and other data points are discussed in this video with Kirk Magleby of the Ancient America Foundation.

Since its initial publication in 1830, the Book of Mormon's mention of horses has been a seemingly anachronistic target for easy criticism. At that time, the prevailing scientific knowledge was that there were no horses in the Americas until they were brought by European conquerors. Eventually, remains of ancient horses such as the Mexican Horse, Western Horse, Yukon Horse, Scott's Horse, and others were found, different from the modern horse (Equus Caballus) in various ways. That is common knowledge now, along with the belief that they all died out by the end of the Pleistocene epoch, some 11,700 years BP (before present) or about 10,000 BC.

Horse remains have been found in digs since the late 1800s, but because some of these extinct types are very similar to the modern horse, they were often misidentified. They are commonly known today and at times found in stratigraphic layers that would suggest they survived until much more recently. The real question is, how long? That is still an open debate, but enough reliable data now exists to say that the survival of some ancient American horses into the Holocene (our current) epoch, should not even be controversial.

On a related note, Yvette Running Horse Collin, as the dissertation for her PhD in Indigenous Studies at the University of Alaska, wrote a paper countering what she calls a 'Eurocentric myth.' Her research attests that Native American peoples have a long-standing cultural relationship with the horse, one that predates the European conquest of the Western Hemisphere. 

Of course, none of this proves the Book of Mormon to be true, nor does it explain the extent of their use among the Nephites, Lamanites, or other Book of Mormon peoples. Based on the record itself, horses are not mentioned after about 26 AD, so they may have died or been killed off by then. For some reason, there still appears to be considerable resistance to the suggestion that horses lived in the Americas much longer than previously thought or that perhaps, in some isolated cases, they never disappeared at all. We suggest, rather than getting sidetracked on other issues, the serious enquirer consider the points raised here.

Click here to watch the video.

Click here to read about post-Pleistocene horses from San Luis Potosí, published in the Texas Journal of Science.

Click here to read Dr. Collin's PhD dissertation, published by the University of Alaska Fairbanks.

New Book of Mormon videos

Daniel has been pairing with the Ancient America Foundation to produce some new Book of Mormon videos for their YouTube channel Discover the Book of Mormon. He worked with Kirk Magleby to put together a list of important topics related to the Book of Mormon. The first one is complete and uploaded. It covers the details on the sarcophagus lid on Pakal's tomb inside the Temple of the Inscriptions at Palenque. This is an important artifact because of what it can teach us about Maya beliefs concerning death and the afterlife. 

But also, the unique and sculptural elements on the lid have been the subject of a wide range of interpretations. Perhaps the most unusual is that behind the ancient alien theories. Popularized in the 1960s by Swiss author Erich von Däniken, it's that enigmatic ancient artifacts such as Pakal's tomb are evidence of ancient alien contact. Although the detailed carvings seem mysterious, there is a good bit of solid scholarship that can help us decipher them. Putting the imager in context is also helpful. What we see is that Pakal's belief in resurrection as an escape from the monster of death and his path of ascending to the heavenly realms to be with deity is similar to many teachings in the Book of Mormon. Not only that, it certainly makes more sense than the idea of an ancient astronaut in a spaceship.

Click here to watch the video.

Animal domestication in Mesoamerica

The Book of Mormon refers to various Old World animals, most of which are believed to not be indigenous to the Americas. Evidence for their existence or even what animals are being referred to is a topic for another discussion. But all throughout Nephite history, there is a mention of their having 'flocks and herds,' although the actual animals they contain are not specified.

Domestication of animals in Ancient America is a murky subject. According to an article at the National Library of Medicine, "The nature of animal management in Mesoamerica is not as well understood compared with other state-level societies around the world." Recent studies show evidence for the use of animals at the Maya city of Ceibal, a site in central Guatemala that we visited. Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and strontium isotopes show what kind of flocks and herds the Maya had, exercising some form of animal husbandry.

Using a multiisotope approach to examine faunal specimens, scientists have found the earliest evidence for captive-reared taxa in the Americas, showing that animal domestication and husbandry played a greater role in life at Ceibal than was previously believed. This city's central plaza is one of the earliest known in the region, with human habitation at the site going back as far as 1000 B.C. Live animal trade in the area is now known to go back as far as at least 700 B.C. Based on the evidence, the Maya had dogs (some used for hunting and some as food), deer, peccaries (a type of wild pig), tapirs, cats, and turkeys, among other animals. The more we learn the specifics of Maya and other cultures in Ancient America, the more we see that they had the same kinds of complex societies known in the Old World, including, urban areas, capitals, governments, markets, schools, agriculture, and even animal husbandry. These were not a primitive, Stone Age people as was first believed.

Many controversial aspects of the Book of Mormon have been shown to be plausible as we learn more about the history of the New World. While not a direct one-to-one comparison, strong evidence for large scale animal domestication among the Maya coincides with the Book of Mormon account.

Click here to read about the earliest isotopic evidence for animal management at Ceibal.

New cities discovered in South America

We think it's always interesting when previously-unknown cities are found in Central and South America. Geographically, this area is probably outside of Book of Mormon locations, but new technologies such as LiDAR are showing us just how much history is hidden under the jungles and remote areas in this hemisphere. It's interesting to not that as far as we know, there is nothing like this in North America. Of course, there's really no need to use LiDAR to search for them as the land has been cleared here and we don't really have rainforests anyway. But unknown ancient cities, structures, roads, and even agricultural sites where people dwelt in large numbers a long time ago.

In some cases, as with this site in Ecuador, mounds and roads were known, but the true extent of how it all fit together could not be known unless centuries of Amazonian growth could be removed, in this case, digitally. This ancient Ecuadorian city was inhabited by a people known today as the Upano as early as 500 B.C. In addition to buildings, farms, and drainage canals, they had roads, some of which stretched for 12 miles. As archaeologist Stéphen Rostain noted, "There's always been an incredible diversity of people and settlements in the Amazon..."

Our opinion is that modern Ecuador is far outside any map that would match Book of Mormon geography. However, similar discoveries are being made all over Mesoamerica. There is so much ancient history in these lands that we have yet to find.

Click here to read about the Kunguints site at the Upano Valley in Ecuador.

Jewish temples outside of Jerusalem?

One criticism of the Book of Mormon is the idea that faithful Jews would build a temple anywhere outside of the temple mount in Jerusalem. As we know, Nephi states that he "...did build a temple; and I did construct it after the manner of the temple of Solomon save it were not built of so many precious things; for they were not to be found upon the land..." (2 Ne 5:16). As a faithful, observant Jew (although not of Judah), would Nephi have dared to build a temple in another land, which was specifically forbidden by Deuteronomic law? Why would he think he had the authority to do so?

While we don't have proof of Nephi's temple, there is actually uncontested evidence for Israelite temples outside of Jerusalem. The best-known example is one in Egypt, on the island of Elephantine on the Nile River. Papyrus documents and ostraca (pottery shards inscribed with writing) show a Jewish presence on the island as early as the 7th century BC.  They apparently were Judean mercenaries that guarded the border between Egypt and Nubia. Based on these ancient documents, this Jewish community may have been polytheistic and surprisingly enough, they were not aware of the Torah or many of the accounts it contains. This could possibly explain the additional worship of other local deities, along with Yahweh (Jehovah). It is also somewhat similar to the account of the people of Zarahemla in the Book of Mormon, who had brought no scriptures with them and had lost their religion.

Letter asking for help in 
rebuilding the temple

The Elephantine Jews referred to their small temple as בֵּית יהוה Bēt YHWH (House of the Lord), just like Solomon's temple in Jerusalem. It was originally built between the 7th and 6th centuries BC and had altars for incense offerings and sacrifices. Serving the religious needs of this little community, it may also have been built as a reaction to the pagan worship instituted by King Manasseh in Jerusalem. Its construction appears to resemble a permanent version of Moses' tabernacle, although it is only known through the accounts found on the Elephantine papyri. The temple was damaged at least once as evidenced by a letter written in Aramaic found in the Elephantine papyri sent by the Jews there to the high priest in Jerusalem, asking for support in rebuilding it. They also sent similar letters to local governors. The letter is dated to 407 BC and contains the following passage: "We have also sent a letter before now, when this evil was done to us, to our lord and to the high priest Johanan and his colleagues the priests in Jerusalem and to Ostanes the brother of Anani and the nobles of the Jews, Never a letter have they sent to us." 

It is not known whether this temple was built before or after the destruction of Jerusalem that Lehi and his group escaped. The original Jerusalem temple was pillaged and destroyed shortly afterward in 587 BC by the Babylonians. Some surviving refugees may have fled to Elephantine, especially if there was another temple there. Sometime in the 3rd century BC, this satellite temple was also abandoned and destroyed, replaced by a temple to the Egyptian god Khnum.

Holy of holies in the
Tel Arad temple

Another Jewish temple is found at Tel Arad, near the modern Israeli city of Arad in the Negev Desert. Ostraca at the site written in Paleo Hebrew also identify it as בֵּית יהוה Bēt YHWH (House of the Lord). Its construction dates back to 950 BC, making its use concurrent with Solomon's temple. Its design included an outer court with an altar, a holy place, and a holy of holies.

Yet another temple outside of Jerusalem is mentioned by the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus. It was built in 170 BC by a high priest, Onias ben-Shimon (son of Simon) in the Egyptian city of Leontopolis of the district Heliopolis. It is described as a copy of the temple at Jerusalem, although smaller and less elaborate. Sacrifices were performed there, however, it is still debated as to whether they were valid (halachic) or if this was part of an idolatrous cult. This temple is referred to as Bēt Honio (or Chonyo), the 'House of Onias.'

With these examples in mind, it is easy to understand why Nephi felt justified in building a temple in the Promised Land to which he and his people had been led. Even though it was not built on Jerusalem's Mount Moriah and did not contain the holy temple artifacts found within Solomon's temple, the Nephites continued to obey the law of Moses with all its required sacrifices where they had settled. Since there were no Levites mentioned in Lehi's group, the authority for any ordinances practiced within would have been under the Melchizedek priesthood. The Book of Mormon later gives an account of a temple in the land of Zarahemla and again later in Bountiful, when the resurrected Savior appeared. Wherever the Lord's people end up, they feel compelled to build a temple to his name in which to worship. This pattern is as true today as it was anciently.

Click here to read more about the Elephantine temple.

Click here to read more about the Tel Arad temple.

Click here to read more about Onias' temple in Leontopolis.

Mysterious skulls may hold a secret

We're not saying it's aliens, but...

You may have heard that before. What is still known as the History channel (for some reason) has lots of shows dealing with the concept of ancient aliens and the like. It should go without saying that most archaeologists hate this theory, but they also reject much of what we suggest concerning the Book of Mormon and ancient history. It may be useful at times to see what is happening in the fringe areas of pseudoscience. Oddly enough, sometimes the Book of Mormon or other experiences of Joseph Smith are mentioned on these programs. They do at times find anomalies like advanced cultural artifacts, lost civilizations, ties to the Old World, or even writing on metal plates. While their standard answer is often aliens, we may have a more plausible explanation. 

There are a number of unusual skulls that have been excavated from ancient burial sites in the Americas. It is well known that for some reason, both Old and New World peoples with no apparent ties practiced cranial deformation to elongate their skulls, starting with infants. Some ancient American skulls look so unusual that again the alien hypothesis is brought up. Recently, DNA studies gave some surprising results and have raised questions about how the Americas were populated in antiquity.
In 2014, DNA tests were performed on 2000-3000-year-old skulls found in Peru. Hundreds were found in Paracas by a Peruvian archaeologist in the 1920s. The initial results found mitochondrial DNA “with mutations unknown in any human, primate, or animal known." To get a better idea of what was really happening with these ancient skulls, a second round of DNA tests was undertaken. Samples of hair and bone powder were taken and sent to three labs in Canada and two in the US. Geneticist at these labs were told that the samples were from ancient mummies, but the origins were not given. This nod to blind testing is commendable, as it avoids preconceptions that could influence the results or how they are interpreted.

The second set of tests were performed in 2016, with the results showing European and Middle Eastern Origins. Not surprisingly, not much more attention is given to these revolutionary findings. They are often explained away if not ignored outright. However, if true, it would mean that the accepted population history of Ancient America would need some serious re-evaluation. Scientists have always been reluctant to do so, even though some claim they are open to the question. On the subject, once scientist has commented, "It is of course possible that genetic evidence of an ancient trans-Atlantic migration event simply has not been found yet. Should credible evidence of direct gene flow from an ancient Solutrean (or Middle Eastern) population be found within ancient Native American genomes, it would require the field to reassess the “Beringian only” model of prehistoric Native American migration. However, no such evidence has been found, and the Beringian migration model remains the best interpretation of the genetic, archaeological, and paleoclimate data to date."

As we question the standard historical answer of how the Americas were populated, we need to keep these issues in mind. Often, controversial claims regarding DNA are hard to understand by non-geneticists. But the genetic record in the Americas was drastically altered after the European conquest, sometimes through violence, but more often through disease. According to lead researcher Antonio Salas of the University of Santiago de Compostela, “Up to 90% of native South Americans died very quickly...You can imagine that a lot of genetic diversity was lost as well.”

Click here to read about the DNA results.

Click here to read a reaction to pseudoscientific claims.

Click here to read about the impact on genetic history in South America.

'Elephants' in America?

One of the more outlandish claims of the Book of Ether is that there were elephants in the promised land. While we know that wooly mammoths and similar animals lived in the Northern Hemisphere during the last Ice Age, the question is how long they survived before becoming extinct. If there were remnant mammoth populations in the Americas during Jaredite times, this could be a good explanation for the 'elephants' mentioned in Ether 9:19.

Surprisingly, small populations of mammoths survived until relatively modern times. It is now accepted that a group of mammoths were still living on a remote Russian island in 1650 BC. This is pretty much what we understand to be at the start of the Jaredite time period as depicted in the Book of Mormon. Could there have been other groups still on the American mainland, and perhaps even as far south as Central America at that time? This is a controversial suggestion, but various explorers in the Americas have described seeing what could only be understood as mammoths, even as recently as the 19th century. Some of their accounts are reproduced in this video. 

 

Bearded Maya Deities

We have written before about bearded individuals depicted in Maya art. This is quite rare, as the native Maya did not generally grow beards, and according to some Spanish accounts, they did all they could to prevent facial hair from growing. Obviously, bearded figures stand out as notable, often seen on kings and gods. One of Palenque's founding kings is shown with a beard. Kings at Copán and Quiriguá had themselves depicted on monuments with false beards, much as ancient Pharaohs in Egypt did.

One figure often depicted this way was the Maya sun god. This detail from a mural at Xelhá shows the sun god with a floral breath scroll emanating from his mouth. Flowers and jade appear as Classic-era symbols.

We all know about legends regarding Quetzalcoatl. Without diving into questionable interpretations or connections, we still find this character to be noteworthy, whether as a conquering hero or as a god. This bearded depiction of Quetzalcoatl is found in the Codex Telleriano-Remensis. Notice the serpent earspool. Among the Aztecs, these items were part of the regalia of deity. These items were derived from more ancient Mesoamerican imagery of flowers as caves or portals. 

While Quetzalcoatl is the Nahuatl name for an Aztec deity, the sun god mentioned here is from Maya belief. He is often shown holding shield and a lance and also became associated with war. By the late Postclassic era, his visual traits include a beard and fangs. This image is from the Madrid Codex. Sometimes, beards are shown on images depicting old men.

Another image of the sun god is on the wooden handle of a sacrificial knife. This instance shows a him in the guise of a diving or descending god, which is a symbol particular to the Yucatán Peninsula. Some of the best known examples are found at Tulum and Cobá. This deity is often associated with the god of bees. The Maya honeybee symbolized a link to the spirit world. This particular image shows iconography on the band of his headdress that combines the solar k'in glyph for day and a floral sign. A turquoise mask, supposedly from Chiapas, Mexico, depicts the sun god with inlaid jaguar fangs. It originally also had a beard and brow made from human hair. 

Among the ancient Maya, flowers were closely related with the sun. In Mesoamerica, the sun was portrayed as a bellicose being ruling the afterlife, a floral realm for the brave and virtuous. Flowers symbolized the paradise of the sun, which contained not only flowers, but also precious birds and polished stones. The Aztec solar celestial paradise was where the honored dead became birds and butterflies. Some of this symbolism can be traced back to Teotihuacán, where plumed serpents emerge from giant flowers. The Aztecs placed this realm in the east, which was also the domain of plumed serpents. The feathered serpent is the major symbol of Quetzalcoatl and Kukulkán, his Maya counterpart. Quetzalcoatl has many connections to the east, the dawn, and the Morning Star.

We aren't making direct connections here, but feel that bearded figures are interesting and we aren't the only ones that see possible connections to Old World cultures. Some of the symbolism covered here spans a broad range of time periods and cultures, from Central Mexico to Guatemala and the Yucatán. Some important initial teachings may have been the source of beliefs that have had such a widespread impact.

Much of this content and imagery was taken from At Dawn’s Edge: Tulúm, Santa Rita, and Floral Symbolism in the International Style of Late Postclassic Mesoamerica by Karl Taube.

Delving deeper into the Blythe Intaglios

Sharing the previous post generated a lot of pushback, surprisingly from a Facebook group on the Book of Mormon and archaeology. The suggestion that this particular figure of the geoglyphs in the southern California desert known today as the Blythe Intaglios could possibly be a horse was met primarily with criticism. The common answer was that it was a mountain lion and could not be a horse. Why would an animal design like this be identified with a predator like a puma or cougar and not some prey animal more closely resembling its actual shape?

the other Blythe Intaglios Quadruped

The prevailing interpretation is that the humanoid figure is Mastamho, the creator of life. He had a companion and helper known as Hatakulya, a mountain lion. Some legends say that Hatakulya could also transform into a man. Other legends state that there were two mountain lions: Hatakulya and Numeta. Hatakulya has a tail that hangs down and Numeta has one that goes up over his back. If this interpretation is correct, then both quadrupeds would have to represent Hatakulya. These creation stories come from the Mohave and Quechan tribes that live in the region today.

This is the most common interpretation of these giant images, but in searching websites that explain or describe the Blythe Intaglios, most appear to have copied their text from the same source, as they all say the same thing. The quadrupeds are often described in scientific literature as 'mountain lion-like.' This is odd, because even if they do represent such an animal, they certainly do not look like mountain lions. This connection relies considerably on ethnographer Boma Johnson's work (1985, 2003). We can find no additional support for this idea; all later interpretations appear to be using Johnson's work as their reference. The human and animal figures are closely grouped together as though they had a symbolic connection. Each human/animal pair is traditionally identified as Mastamho and Hatakulya respectively, but since Hatakulya is a mountain lion that can transform into a man, perhaps each set represents both aspects of one being. Based on the accepted iconography, neither of the animals can be Numeta. A third humanoid is nearby, but without an accompanying animal. 

LegendsofAmerica.com has a page on the Blythe Intaglios and repeats the same story as all the rest do, but also suggests that the figures instead may represent powerful individuals in a clan interacting with their surroundings. It also includes the observation that "Part of the dating problem is that the animal figures appear to be horses. If so, they must have been carved either before American horses went extinct some 10,000 years ago or more recently after the Spaniards arrived in California in 1540.

"Another theory holds that some modern horses did exist in North America before the Spaniards, but were regarded as food sources rather than bests [sic] of burden."

Our point is that it really is not clear what these figures were originally created to represent. Since no Native American group in the region claims to have made them, it is reasonable to look at alternative interpretations. We have seen several possibilities. The problem is, as LegendsofAmerica states, the animal figures (particularly one of them) appear to be horses. The two quadrupeds are not identical; they have some differing details, such as head shape, neck length, and suggestion of paws (or hooves) at the feet, one looking more horse-like than the other. We aren't stating definitively that they are horses, just that this idea is something to consider. We aren't the first to suggest this. They may be the mountain lion(s) that assisted in the creation, but if they are, we must ask why the people who made them did not make them look more like predators instead of prey animals, since ancient cultures in this region (and even worldwide) were certainly adept at doing that. Regardless of what the giant figures may represent or the role they played in their original culture, without the pre-conceived idea that they are mountain lions in a specific creation story, any untrained observer would classify them as some sort of large prey animal, likely an ungulate. 

Read about the Blythe Intaglios on legendsofamerica.com.

Ancient horse in the southern California desert?

We always find items like this interesting. Many may not know about what are now called the Blythe Intaglios, discovered in 1932 by a pilot flying from Nevada to California. They are geoglyphs, large works of art created in the earth that are mainly discernible from the air, quite similar to the Nazca Lines in Peru, even in their construction. Their current name comes from their location near Blythe, CA in the Colorado Desert.

Blythe Intaglio Quadruped

In addition to some spiral and geometric designs, the five main figures are humanoid and animal; two of them are officially known as 'quadrupeds,' the most interesting of which is shown here. Two questions should immediately come to mind: what animal is being represented and what is the age of this and the other large figures? Thinking of large American fauna, this image could easily be seen as a horse to the untrained eye. How likely is that? 

Daniel has long researched the topic of ancient American horses, as recorded in the Book of Mormon. This is obviously a controversial topic that goes against the current line of thinking, both common and scientific, but that is slowly changing. There is actually a good bit of information about these geoglyphs, but none of it suggests that this could be a pre-Columbian depiction of an ancient horse; that would be going too far. Attempts have been made to connect this and the other nearby figures to Yuman oral history and cosmology, however, it is not known who created them, although later native nations knew about and attached significance to them.

Is there any danger in seeing a horse in this figure? The assertion can be made that imagery from other cultures must be interpreted using the understanding of that culture. This is definitely true and quite often pseudoscientific claims are made by taking artifacts out of context and interpreting them with a modern understanding. We should be careful to guard against this, but it must be pointed out that from prehistoric cave paintings to zoomorphic representations from ancient cultures all over the world, animals in ancient art can usually be readily identified. Ancient people knew what animals familiar to them looked like and were quite skilled at representing them through painting, sculpture, and other means. While we may not know much about the culture that created the aforementioned Nazca Lines, we can easily recognize the spider, monkey, hummingbird, and other representational art they made, even if we do not understand their meaning.

Blue Mesa, AZ

Oddly enough, this figure is most often identified as a mountain lion, companion to the Creator in an ancient creation myth. Other safe and more visually likely candidates would be a deer, elk, or another common North American ungulate. Our first reaction to the mountain lion label is that it could only be true if the creators of this figure had never seen such an animal, but are there culturally similar examples known to represent cougars or pumas for comparison? While it is not known exactly who created the Blythe Intaglios or even when, there is a plethora of ancient and even prehistoric rock art examples from this region of the United States. Shown here is a well-known petroglyph, which is easily recognizable as a feline. Notice salient features such as the ears and claws. Interestingly enough, a common feature of indigenous images in the Southwest of mountain lions is the long tail going over the back.

Coso Mountains, CA

Other examples of non-controversial animals are quite common. As can be seen in these petroglyphs from the Mohave Desert, animal forms are surprisingly recognizable, even cross culturally. It is not hard at all to make out horned sheep/goats, a lizard, and some sort of canine, probably a coyote or dog. More specific identification may not be possible, but the overall general type of animal is easy to see.

Bluff, UT

In this prehistoric example, large horned animals are depicted. What are obviously antlers are shown on what is likely a deer. Also identifiable are a bird and the human hunting with a bow and arrow. Countless such petroglyphs and pictographs are known all across the United States, but these are all chosen from the American Southwest in an attempt to be as culturally relevant as possible to the Blythe Intaglios. However, it should be noted that even in ancient rock art worldwide, the modern viewer can almost always tell at least the general type of animal depicted. Humans have a way of successfully representing animals, even across wide ranges of time and distance.

Indian Creek State Park, UT

As a contrast, there is North American rock art that obviously shows horses, even being ridden. Newspaper Rock in Utah is a well-known example. We are not suggesting that this is a pre-conquest depiction of an Ancient American horse. It was most likely created long after horses had been re-introduced to the Americas and plains tribes had adopted them into their culture. When non-native scientists see horses depicted, they assume a historical date without further investigation. It should be noted that some First Nations people have oral histories and traditions that they have always had horses, long before the white man arrived. 

Rock art can be dated using a variety of techniques, including the growth of lichens and weathering or varnish on the rocks, but as we have often seen if the image is undeniably a horse, no effort is taken to determine a date because its age can automatically be assumed. This is safe enough and scientifically sound, but notice the circular reasoning involved: If it is a horse, then it must be post-conquest and only if it is post conquest, then can it reasonably be a horse. This approach is used by Michael J. Harner in his study of the Blythe Intaglios. In "GRAVEL PICTOGRAPHS OF THE LOWER COLORADO RIVER REGION," he states '...if one considers the quadrupeds to be horses, then all five figures can be considered to be historic...' He also suggests they may be a coyote, wolf, or dog. A safe and non-controversial assumption, but again, it begs the question (since we know there were no horses in the Americas before they were introduced by Europeans, any ancient horse-like depiction must be something else) instead of researching it out fully with an open mind. However, even in this study, we see that interpreting the quadruped as a horse is not unreasonable.

This brings us to the real question, can these geoglyphs be dated? They have been, with some interesting results. Jay von Werlhof and Harry Casey authored a study on these and other rock art in the region. On the Blythe Intaglios quadruped in particular, the AMS C-14 age is 1145 +/_ 65 with a Total Error of 203. The Calibrated Age (1 sigma) is AD 668 (892) 1152. This may be a bit hard to decipher, but later in the study, they conclude that the minimum ages of these geoglyphs, referred to as the 'Blythe Giants,' are in the time range of AD 550-1150 and according to the table in the study, the quadruped has a highest probabilistic date of AD 892. This is important, as Harner states that, 'The uniformity of style of the anthropomorphic and quadruped representations suggests that they were constructed contemporaneously.'

Based on the results of these studies, the Blythe Intaglios quadruped was created at least 400-500 years before the traditional timeline of the re-introduction of horses to the region, and probably much earlier. Comparing it to other rock art examples in the American Southwest, it does not easily resemble a mountain lion, deer, bighorn sheep, elk, or other animal commonly known to Native Americans, although it could represent a mythical creature. As stated in scientific studies, it has at times been interpreted as a horse. The only point of contention is its age if indeed it actually is a horse. We realize that we are swimming against the current here, but all things considered, suggesting that this Blythe Intaglios quadruped might be a pre-conquest horse is not all that outrageous.

Plaque at the site, suggesting a possible interpretation as a horse, the shape at end of each leg may be a paw or hoof

Click hear to read Michael J. Harner's study

Click here to read Jay von Werlhof and Harry Casey's study

Click here to read about the attempts to connect the geoglyphs to the Yuman culture

Click here for an article on pseudoarchaeological claims of horses in the Americas that mentions this geoglyph

The Peacemaker and the Tree of Peace

We have some new interesting information to share for your consideration and this is a nice time of year to do it. This is an Iroquois legend about the Peacemaker and the Tree of Peace. His origin is an interesting one:

"The Peacemaker was born a Huron, to a young virgin woman who had not yet gone through here puberty rites. The young woman had not yet reached her time for the ceremony when she became pregnant. Her mother was worried of what the people of the village might say, so she hid her away during her pregnancy until she gave birth. She convinced her daughter that she had to get rid of the baby. The grandmother tried three times to kill the baby and failed each time. She then realized that he must be someone special and with special powers and knew that they should raise him carefully."

The Peacemaker brought together five warring nations. Even after this success, he noticed that they still carried their weapons. So he saw a tall evergreen tree and uprooted it, creating a cavity. He then instructed the men to cast their weapons of war into it and he replaced the tree, burying them, saying, "Into the depths of the earth, down into the deep under earth currents of water flowing into unknown regions, we cast all weapons of strife. We bury them from sight forever and plant again the tree. Thus shall all great peace be established and hostilities shall no longer be known between the Five Nations but only peace to a united people."

Christlike similarities are immediately obvious. It is interesting how many gods and heroes in mythologies around the world come from a virgin birth with an unknown father. But the Book of Mormon also tells a story of Lamanites that once converted to belief in God, buried their weapons of war as a symbol of their newfound faith. "...all the people were assembled together, they took their swords, and all the weapons which were used for the shedding of man’s blood, and they did bury them up deep in the earth." (Alma 24:17)

The Book of Mormon does not teach about the origins of the Iroquois necessarily, but we find these similarities to be quite intriguing and worthy of further study. If it records true events that took place anciently, it's possible that these stories survived in some form and were adopted by later cultures, who appropriated them and made them their own.

Click here to read more about the Peacemaker and the Tree of Peace.

More thoughts on the origin and significance of Quetzalcoatl

Latter-Day Saints have long been interested in establishing a connection between ancient American legends of Quetzalcoatl (and similar deities from a variety of cultures) and Jesus Christ's visit as told in the Book of Mormon. It should be noted that this idea is not new; Spanish chroniclers wrote down these beliefs and noted their similarity. So, this idea is not something that was created in support of the veracity of the Book of Mormon account, but perhaps latched onto because it was appealing. 

Obviously, the scientific world does not think much of this view, pointing out the need to be skeptical of the Spanish, who may have had other interests in mind. The native populations they met may have also altered their stated beliefs for reasons of their own as they related them to their conquerors. This may explain the examples of seemingly Biblical stories and practices found among the Maya, Aztecs, and other later cultures, or it may not. Even some LDS scholars and commentators, such as Brandt Gardner, not only discourage making these connections, but even affirm there is no support for a Christlike Quetzalcoatl (or Gukumatz, or Kukulcan, or Viracocha) older than Spanish records, asserting that this similarity was basically a Spanish invention.

Leaving aside why the idea of a deity similar to Christ would appeal to the Catholic conquerors (after all, they weren't Mormons), we can look at the widely-held indigenous belief in a feathered serpent deity, which is found among many ancient cultures and combines unexpected animal aspects. An admittedly non-scientific article on Ancient Origins deals with this very topic. It discusses the idea that these (bearded?) gods of the Americas may have been the resurrected Jesus, even mentioning LDS beliefs and the account of his visit in the Book of Mormon. This assertion is no longer as widely ridiculed as it has been in the past. But it delves into what is perhaps a more important question of why the serpent, a creature from the ground, was combined with a bird, a creature from the sky, to form a singular god.

The symbol of the eagle and the snake is also important to Aztec origin legends and is found on the flag of Mexico. As stated in the article, this legend was misinterpreted by the Spanish as the eagle representing good and the serpent evil, which fits in nicely with European heraldry and Christian theology. But a more accurate representation of these attributes may be much more complex. The suggestion in this article is that the earthly and heavenly creatures may represent different states of consciousness together in one being. Another idea we suggest is that the idea of a feathered serpent god is to represent a deity combining heavenly and earthly attributes, or we might say, divine and mortal. Looking at it in this way, it's not too hard to think of Jesus Christ the Son of God, who embodied both the divine and the mortal in his person, as necessary in carrying out his atoning sacrifice. 

In conclusion, perhaps Quetzalcoatl doesn't need to be a bearded white man after all. Perhaps the symbolism of the earthly and the divine combined in one individual is enough. Just something to think about.

Click here to read the article on ancient-origins.net

More support for Ancient American horses

Out of all the criticisms of the Book of Mormon, its mention of horses keeps coming up. Such has been the case for 190 years. Daniel has written papers and given presentations on strong support for the presence of horses in the Americas far before previously held beliefs. There may not be a definite answer yet, but more support from non-LDS sources keeps appearing. Of particular interest is research into Native American traditions and histories

Yvette Running Horse, an indigenous scholar, has a good bit of current research supporting native traditions that they have always had the horse. Many of her findings are very similar to the paper that Daniel had published in BYU Studies.  She doesn't seem to have any interest in supporting the Book of Mormon narrative, so we recommend her work for consideration. As more time goes by, our stance on the reality of horses in Ancient America far before the Spanish conquest becomes more commonplace.

Click here to read about Yvette Running Horse's dissertation

A steel sword from 7th century BC Israel

Steel in the Book of Mormon is a common target for critics. The first mention is the sword of Laban, with its blade of 'precious' steel. The common thinking for quite a while is that this is an anachronism, several centuries out of date. We have found ancient examples of Middle Eastern steel: an 11th century BC dagger from Cyprus and a 12th or 13th century BC pick from Mt. Adir in northern Galilee (click here to read about them). However, an actual steel sword dating to Lehi's time has been found.

Now residing in the Israel Museum, a sword from the Vered Jericho fortress was found in the 1980s. It's over three feet long and is described as being made of mild steel. Some listings may describe it as iron, but because steel is so close to iron (up to 99%), academic descriptions often don't distinguish between the two materials. But articles delving into the details will mention the difference. According to Popular Mechanics and the Biblical Archaeology Review, it is indeed iron hardened into a mild steel (click here to read the article). According to the museum's 1992 journal, "Metallurgical analysis of a sample taken from the blade proves that it was made of mild steel, and that the iron was deliberately hardened into steel, attesting to the technical knowledge of the blacksmith."

Shad Brooks, an Australian swords and ancient weaponry expert, explains the significance of this find on his YouTube channel, Shadiversity. He defends its description as steel and explains just how close iron and steel are, especially in ancient metallurgy. Using the Vered Jericho sword as a base, he has even reconstructed a probable design of the sword of Laban, based on Nephi's description.

The sword of Laban can now safely be removed from any list of Book of Mormon controversies. No longer do we need to try and explain it away, as it fits fully into the historical record of the time, without any hit of anachronism.

Click here to watch Shad's recreation of the sword of Laban.
Click here to watch Shad's defense of the Vered Jericho sword as steel.

Pope confirms phrase from the JST

In an unexpected bit of news, Pope Francis recently approved a change to a phrase in the Lord's Prayer, found in Matthew 6:14. In this familiar scripture, Jesus teaches the pattern for praying to our Heavenly Father. The King James Bible contains the phrase, "And lead us not into temptation." Reasoning that God does not tempt mankind, but rather the devil, the pope has changed the phrase to “do not let us fall into temptation.”

This is interesting because the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible, long criticized by many Christians, contains practically the same phrase, for likely the same reason. His rendering of this line reads "And suffer us not to be led into temptation." The beyond close similarity of the two phrases is interesting, since Joseph made this inspired change over 150 years ago. We wonder how and why the current pope came to this same conclusion, but we do agree with his decision.

Read here about Pope Francis' change to this and the Gloria.

An interesting story to share

Merry Christmas, everyone! At this wonderful season, we thought we would share an odd story about something that happened to Daniel earlier this year. As you know, the point of this blog is to share our studies and also to contact others who are interested in this information.

Some months ago, Daniel was contacted by someone in Panama; we'll call him José. He said he had found a post on our blog about a new discovery of gold items buried in a stone box in Mexico City. According to this individual, there was a museum in Panama called the Fort David Museum. It was somehow associated with an ancient nearby site called Barriles. After a bit of research, we found some information on this site and it appears to be legitimate. But it is on property owned by people that are looking to get publicity for it by making some outrageous claims.

José wanted Daniel to come to Panama to see the artifacts and get his opinion on them. He was even willing to pay his way to fly and stay there. What made this interesting was that he claimed that ancient steel swords and gold plates had been found in a tomb in Panama. While things like this are always intriguing, caution is paramount. LDS hopefuls have been misled in the past by bad archaeology. The story being presented to Daniel was that this site contained the tomb of a chief or powerful leader named El Quibián Malchía. This Malchía supposedly left the Old World around 600 b.c. and sailed with Phoenicians to Panama. The purpose of this journey was to save the Ark of the Covenant from Babylonian capture. Once in the New World, he set himself up as a king. His tomb containing these artifacts was accidentally discovered a few years ago. This image is from one of the museum's videos and purports to be the actual Ark of the Covenant from his tomb. If only Indiana Jones had known!

Many details about this story are unlikely, not the least of which is the poor quality of this 'artifact.' But when José finally sent photos of their gold plates, we knew there was a real problem. The first surprising detail to notice here is that the hieroglyphics engraved on them are exact copies of the 'Charactors' facsimile, even down to their sequence. José even tried to convince Daniel that these were the actual plates guarded by Moroni and used by Joseph Smith to translate the Book of Mormon. When Daniel sent him an image of the 'Charactors' and asked him to explain how it was exactly the same, José demanded to know where he had obtained this image, as they had been careful at the museum not to let let out any information on their plates. Daniel then had to explain to him that this image had been around since the early 1800s and was widely available. In fact, all the information needed to make this low quality replica of the plates could be found in posts on our blog.

From there, the communication just got even stranger, with José making some bizarre accusations and personal admissions. We don't know if he was complicit in this fraud or if he was fooled by it. We don't see much purpose in this whole affair, except maybe to scam LDS tourists into visiting this site and spending money there, and using Daniel to spread the word. While a free trip to Panama did sound tempting, Daniel did eventually decide against it and cut off all contact with José, after trying to convince him to give up on this hopeless fraud. Not wanting to be part of an obvious hoax, Daniel was also somewhat concerned for his own safety. Who was involved in this scheme and what did they really hope to achieve? Why did they want him to come, of all people? That is still a mystery to us. But if anyone is going through that area of Panama, it might be worthwhile to stop by the Fort David Museum and see what they have. We haven't seen anything there except very modern, crudely made fakes without any hint of authenticity or antiquity. They are about the quality that you would find as trinkets being sold to foreign tourists.

Click here to watch a video on some of the Fort David Museum's claims.

Evidences from the Book of Mormon

This one is a bit off our usual set of topics, but it is an interesting way of looking at the Book of Mormon. Obviously, those who believe in it do so as a principle of faith. Much of what we discuss is admittedly theoretical. But those who reject our traditional explanation for its origins must offer some other story. After all, it is a real book with a coherent storyline and doctrinal teachings. From our point of view, no one has ever submitted a serious alternate theory. This may be that the critics don't take the Book of Mormon seriously enough to study it and find out what it really contains. While there remains much that is still up for debate, there are a lot of internal complexities that should warrant some consideration. Here is an interesting video that goes over quite a few of these internal details that are usually ignored by critics. That's not too much of a surprise, since many members probably aren't aware of many of them.

Click here to watch this video on internal evidences.

Ancient horse bones found in Utah

Last year, a family in Utah came across some unexpected bones while digging in their back yard. After some inspection and having experts take a look, it was determined to be the unfossilized bones of an ancient breed of horse, dating to the Ice Age. It appears to have died about 16,000 years ago. The size is about that of a Shetland Pony. Paleontologists came in to excavate it professionally, and will do further work on the skeleton to find out more about it.

We find this to be an interesting find. Because of its age, it cannot have any direct connection to Book of Mormon events. We doubt that the events related in it extended as far as the western United States, but these finds should be a constant reminder that there is so much ancient history in this part of the world yet to be discovered. The existence of early horses in American prehistory is now commonly known, but it should be remembered that this was not always the case. When the Book of Mormon was first published in 1830, the common knowledge then was that there were no horses or similar large fauna at all until after European contact. Daniel has spoken and written extensively regarding the evolution of belief about ancient American horses and the evidence for pre-Columbian horses in this hemisphere. Click the links below to read more details about this find.

Read about this discovery on Live Science.
Read about this discovery at the NY Times.

More undiscovered Maya cities and large populations

Recent articles show that LIDAR has been used to see through the dense jungles of northern Guatemala and find what still lies underneath. Palaces, elevated highways, and the ruins of more than 60,000 houses have been discovered. What is now seen is a society that is far more complex and interconnected than previously thought.

Ten parcels of land, totaling more than 800 sq. miles was mapped, but this is just a small part of the large northern jungles of Guatemala, known as the Petén. It is likely that much more would be discovered if the unmapped areas were to be scanned. Because of these latest finds, the current estimate for the Maya population at its height is between 10 and 15 million. This is a surprisingly high number when compared to previous estimates.

The final battles of the Book of Mormon record large numbers involved in the fighting. In the past, these numbers seemed hard to justify, but as finds like these keep being announced, they are easier to believe. It should be pointed out that much of the Maya civilization existed after the end of the Book of Mormon, so these finds don't related directly to its history. But large populations among the Nephites, Lamanites, and other groups mentioned in this scripture are no longer a strong reason to discount it.

Read more about these discoveries at National Geographic.

Ancient elephants and horses in the Yucatán?

More unexpected artifacts have been found in caves in the Yucatán Peninsula. A recent article on the Latin American news site teleSUR tells of explorations by INAH of cenotes and the underwater tunnels linking them. The Yucatán is riddled with caves and tunnels going all through its limestone foundation. Many of them are filled with water and were the primary water source for the ancient Maya. They were also ritual and sacred spaces, seen as an entrance to Xibalba, the underworld and land of the dead, according to Maya religious beliefs. So, they were also commonly used as ceremonial centers and places of sacrifice.

In one of these cave systems, well preserved ceramic vessels and bones of sacrificial offerings have been found. In addition to human skulls, bones of extinct animals like giant sloths, elephants, and horses have been found. It's interesting how casually these animals are mentioned in the article, especially since many people still think they were never in Ancient America. Horses and elephants are mentioned in the Book of Mormon, and are still the source of much criticism against it, even though discoveries like this latest one keep happening from time to time. We explored the Loltún Caves, where ancient horse and mammoth bones were found many years ago, but these finds apparently are still not common knowledge. We find it especially noteworthy that this article mentions 'elephants' specifically (not mammoths or mastodons), not even bothering to comment on how revolutionary this idea must be to some people. It's obvious that these finds are likely prehistoric, long before the time period of the Book of Mormon, but it is nonetheless additional evidence supporting its veracity. Sadly this information will likely go ignored by our critics.

Click here to read the full article on teleSUR.